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By Macy Waddle
This summer, I studied Dictatorships and Democracy in Buenos Aires, Argentina for four weeks. I chose to research the role the Catholic Church played in military rule and democratization in the country. As a Catholic myself, Pope Francis being from Buenos Aires sparked an interest in the topic and it was safe to say I was not disappointed. Below is an excerpt from my work this summer. Studying abroad was the most gratifying experience, and I encourage those who are able to pursue immersive learning opportunities. This is “Military Rule and Democratization: The Catholic Church in Argentina.”
Noberto Padilla, a renowned Argentine lawyer, outlines in his paper “Religion in the Secular State in Argentina” two opposing views of the role the Roman Catholic Church plays in Argentine society today. He writes, “The intensity of the bond between the Catholic Church and the State has been discussed: a ‘moral union’ for some; for others, just an economic arrangement as a compromise solution in a tradition of ideas and political institutions rooted in liberalism.” (3) Any individual who explores Buenos Aires, even briefly, is bound to find some symbolism of the Roman Catholic faith, rather it be in architecture, graffiti, gestures, attitudes, street names, the Pope, or even in the number of churches themselves. However, just as Padilla outlined, there is debate over what role the Church plays today. The changing role of the Church is not unique to Argentina, the world as a whole is largely becoming more secular, but there are specific political and social historical events unique to the country that have set the stage for the complicated relationships the two institutions have today. This research report is intended to explore the foundations of the Church in Argentina, the role the Church played in the Dirty War of the military junta in 1976-1983, and how these events and contemporary factors have shaped the relationship today. First, it is important to note the context of the arrival of Catholicism into the country to understand the social and political culture today.
The Arrival and Early Evolution of Catholicism
Catholicism arrived in the early 17th century when Jesuit missionaries led 16 missions across the area that is now Argentina. The goal of each mission was to convert the Native population, estimated to be around 30,000 people, to Catholicism, by whatever means necessary. Some missions sought to immerse themselves with the Native people, while others chose a more violent method of conversion. (Scroope, 2018) Moving forward, Catholic strongholds remained, despite changes in leadership. Argentina declared independence from Spain for the first time 1810, which lifted numerous trade bans with other colonial powers, including Great Britian. British travelers wrote much about their encounters with Catholic Church during this time, saying “the only public buildings worthy of note are the churches, which are on a scale of great magnitude.” (Trifilo, 1963) It is important to note that travelers also observed that parishioners knew little about their religion besides the external presentation due to lack of education nationwide. (Trifilo, 1963) The 1853 Constitution intertwined the Church and State, writing in Article 3, the Confederation adopts and sustains the Catholic faith all and guarantees liberty for all other faiths.” After this clear declaration of religious freedom, a decline in Catholicism in public spaces followed. (Méndez, 1985)
A catalyst arrived for the Church arrived in the country during the economic boom of the 1910s-1929 with the mass immigration of European immigrants, mainly Spanish and Italian. The religion became so popular that in 1934, the 34th Eucharistic Congress was hosted in Buenos Aires, the first time the event was hosted in a South American country. (Méndez, 1985) In the following years, the Church maintained its connection within the state, playing a role in the exile of popular leader Juan Domingo Peron; he was ex-communicated from the Church in 1955 due to disagreements, including efforts to secularize society. This led to the third of six military coups in the country’s history.
The Dirty War and Impacts on Contemporary Catholicism
The Proceso de Reorganización Nacional of 1975-1983 is known largely as the greatest form of state terrorism committed in Argentina’s history. This movement of the sixth and final military dictatorship sought to oppress opposing groups, leading to an estimated 30,000 Argentines who were disappeared by the military junta. It would be an understatement to say the actions of the military junta served as a tragic turning point for the entire country, but these events also served as a crossroads event for the Catholic Church in the country as well. Would the Church relinquish their political connections and speak out against these massive human right crimes, or would they stay silent? Unfortunately, a large majority chose the latter, which has created a long-lasting strain on the relationship between Church, State, and Civilian relationships that may never be repaired.
Religious affiliation is not mentioned in Argentine national surveys, but a 2008 sociological study reported the following information about religion:
“91 percent declared they believe in God, 76 percent of whom are Catholic, 11 percent agnostic or non-believers, 9 percent Protestant, Evangelical, or
Pentecostal denominations, 1.2 percent Jehovah’s Witness, 0.9 percent Mormon, and 1.2 percent other religions.” (Padilla, 2010)
A more recent, but less specific study, reported in 2018 that while 92% of Argentine society identified as Catholic, less than 20% percent are practicing. (Scroope, 2018) A decline in practicing Catholics in recent decades has been simultaneous with a worldwide increase in secularism and an increase in Protestantism, specifically in lower classes. Still, we see so many remnants of the Catholic faith in Argentina today, why? Argentina is still largely a culturally catholic society. To be culturally catholic is defined as, “the phenomenon whereby people cling to certain traditions of their Catholic faith even when they do not profess to believe what the Church teaches on faith and morals, and do not practice the faith in a regular manner.” (Smith, 2016) The decline in practicing Catholics can be contributed worldwide secularism, but in Argentina this phenomenon can be further linked by the loss of institutional trust after the actions of the Catholic Church during the military regime and the quest for democratization.
In an interview with Spanish magazine Cambio 16, Jorge Rafael Videla, president of Argentina from 1976-1981, described his relationship with the Catholic Church as “very cordial, sincere and open.” “The Church fulfilled its duty, it was prudent, in such a way that it said what it was supposed to say without creating unexpected problems for us,” he wrote. (Verbitsky, 2012) As Videla said himself, the church was largely publicly complicit in the actions of the military dictatorship, although giving feedback on changes they wished to see made in private, one of which included the birthing and rehoming of babies from disappeared mothers. In our tour of ex-ESMA, I witnessed the birthing rooms for these babies, on which the floor read, “¿Cómo era posible que en este lugar nacieran chicos?” After the birth of these babies, the mothers, and almost all other prisoners of these clandestine detention centers, were massacred. Members of Church leadership were aware of these acts, as published in the 1978 document that outlined a meeting between Videla and the Executive Committee. The Church, after largely remaining silent for thirty years, verified this document in 2012 and apologized. (Le Goff, 2013) It is significant to note that while the Church was silent, there were select clergymen who opposed the regime. (Verbitsky, 2012)
These stains on Church history have only complicated the relationship with the state and people at all levels of society, creating a sense of disillusionment. Lucas, a cab driver from Puerto Iguazú who I interviewed said he “really didn’t believe in much of anything, but my family is Catholic” when I asked about his religious affiliation. However, after he inquired further about my project, he ecstatically shared with pride that the current Pope was from Argentina. This interview was a prime example of cultural Catholicism in practice. I further explored the Church firsthand by attending mass, once at the Buenos Aires Cathedral and once at a children’s mass at San Franciso Jaiver Parish in Palermo. The first mass, based on the large crowd who was not observing traditions, seemed to be mostly tourists. The second mass was unique in its own regard, with alterations made to cater for the youth and to keep them engaged. This mass was almost empty, with an estimated 30 people in attendance. This may be due to other factors, including the neighborhood; further research could be conducted in rural areas. These negative perceptions have also seemed to influence those loyal to the Church, as I was turned down multiple times after mass by the Parish through email. Even on a micro level, the Catholic church has influence in everyday behaviors.
On a macro-level, the Catholic tradition holds influence in a different way, especially politically. Argentina is regarded as one of the most progressive countries in South America. The country legalized divorce in 1987, sex-education in 2006, same-sex marriage in 2010, and a gender identity law in 2012. How can a country so culturally Catholic yet produce such progressive policy? This is a thoroughly researched topic, one we also discussed in class and concluded that there was a correlation between European progression and what motivates Argentine policy makers. In relation to the process of democratization, research supports the idea that separation of church and state is crucial. In the book “Religion in Public Life: Must Faith Be Privatized” published by Oxford Academia, the author expresses that the right to religious pluralism is essential in establishing a healthy democracy. (Trigg, 2011) After the collapse of the military junta in 1983, Argentina was looking to reestablish itself as a stable democracy after a period of multiple coups in the twentieth century and progressive policy is a statement maker, not just to the Church but internationally.
With the passage of progressive laws comes public opposition from high-ranking church officials and we see an interesting interaction between two leaders from the Church and State with the rise of former Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, now Pope Francis, and former President Cristina Fernadez de Kircher. According to an article published by The Guardian in 2013, Kirchner and her supports had labeled the Pope "chief of the opposition" and “accomplice of the dictatorship.” (2013) For years, President Kirchner refused to meet with then Cardinal Bergoglio, that is, until he became Pope. The populist president quickly realized her administration was out of step with the opinions of the people (nearly two thirds of Argentines had a positive view of Francis in 2013), and quickly turned to a friend of Francis. (2013) This “Copernican shift” as The Guardian refers to it, is a direct result of the culturally Catholic stronghold in the country. While policy positions may differ, even the Kirchners themselves identify as Catholics and will take pride in their religion, while not necessarily subscribing to all practicing beliefs.
In conclusion, while there has been a loss of institutional trust in the Catholic Church and secularism has been established in the State, the Church still has a heavy cultural influence on Argentine society today. It is difficult to encapsulate such a complex relationship in a short research project, a more holistic view of the country would be recommended to better understand Catholic influence in the state and society.